October 15, 1999
To: The Clerk to the Transport and the Environment Committee
The Scottish Parliament
Room 2.7
Committee Chambers
George IV Bridge
Edinburgh EH9 1SP
From: Cindy Sage
Sage Associates
1225 Coast Village Road, Suite G
Santa Barbara, California 93108 USA
Dear Members of the Telecommunications Inquiry Committee,
Thank you for the opportunity to submit written evidence on possible
health effects of wireless communications, addressing the "state of
the science" on what is known and not known. Further, my comments
will speak to what information the Committee should consider in
formulating "advice based on the present state of knowledge".
Comments
The weight of the evidence that bioeffects occur with RFR exposure is
beyond argument and some of the evidence suggests that serious health
effects may result, particularly from cumulative or chronic exposure.
Scientific study on cumulative effects is very incomplete, and some
studies report that low-intensity chronic exposure may be deleterious.
The Commmittee should advise "public health precaution" and
urge population exposures worldwide be kept to a minimum until further
research can clarify risks.
Public exposure to electromagnetic radiation (radiofrequency and
microwave) is growing exponentially worldwide with the introduction and
use of cordless phones, cellular phones, pagers and antennas in
communities designed to transmit their RF signals.
Long-term and cumulative exposure to such massively increased RF has
no precedent in history. There are no conclusive studies on the safety
of such exposures, and the growing body of scientific evidence reports
such bioeffects and adverse health effects are possible, if not
probable. The Committee should advise that involuntary, public exposure
to low-level cumulative RFR may be potentially harmful, based on the
weight of the existing scientific evidence.
Public policies to address the issue of decision making in the face
of this scientific uncertainty are evolving. The precautionary principle
(erring on the side of conservatism) is frequently promoted by public
health advocates given the massive public health risk that is possible
if such exposure is carcinogenic or has other adverse bioeffects. Even
if the risk to an individual is slight (which is at present unknown),
the sheer number of people around the globe who may be at risk makes
this policy choice of utmost importance. The virtual revolution in
science taking place now is based on a growing recognition that
non-thermal or low intensity RF exposure can be detected in living
tissues and result in well-defined bioeffects. Bioeffects that are
reported to result from RF exposure include changes in cell membrane
function, metabolism, cellular signal communication, activation of
proto-oncogenes, and cell death. Resulting effects which are reported in
the scientific literature include DNA breaks and chromosome aberrations,
increased free radical production, cell stress and premature aging,
changes in brain function including memory loss, learning impairment,
headaches and fatigue, sleep disorders, neurodegenerative conditions,
reduction in melatonin secretion, and cancer. The Committee should
require the wireless industry to provide complete, honest and factual
information to consumers, to independently monitor any health effects of
mobile phone use, and to strongly urge public-member participation in
the global policy-making and regulation-making processes on RFR
exposures and technologies.
The United States has a de facto policy of "post-sales
surveillance" with respect to cell phones. That means cell phones
can be sold to the public, and only after years of use will there be
studies to characterize what health consequences, if any, have arisen as
a result. In shorter terms, "we are the experiment" for health
effects. The Committee should reject "post-sales surveillance"
as inadequate to protect existing users.
While the scientific community continues to study and understand the
physical (and quantum mechanic) basis for electromagnetic effects on
living systems, there is little to protect or inform the public about
consequences of unlimited reliance on these new technologies. For all
the potential good which such inventions bring to us, including the
immeasurable benefit of the telecommunications/internet revolution, we
must be vigilant about what consequences may come uninvited.
Appendix A: Significant Scientific Papers That the Committee Should
Consider
The evidence for an association between RFR and bioeffects in living
systems spans the entire range from effects on individual atoms
(calcium) and molecules (DNA or the genetic code in each living cell) to
humans and other mammalian species. In the past 50 years,
experimentation across the electromagnetic spectrum of frequencies has
found replicable bioeffects on everything from mice to men. The cascade
of biological, chemical and physical events that occur in living systems
in response to RFR is better understood as the multi-disciplinary
scientific community and its science matures. Disease is not the only
endpoint of this research. The potential medicinal applications of RFR
treatment offer an unparalleled opportunities for healing and wellness.
Effects on DNA
Lai and Singh (1995) first reported DNA strand breaks from microwave
RFR at low intensity levels. A dose-dependent increase in DNA single-
and double-strand breaks in brain cells exposed at 0.6 W/Kg and 1.2 W/Kg
whole body specific absorption rate (SAR) was found after two hours of
exposure to 2450 MHz RFR. Using the sensitive comet assay for DNA
breakage developed by NP Singh, it was reported that exposure to both
continuous-wave and pulsed RFR produced DNA damage. Published results
appeared in two peer-reviewed scientific journals: The International
Journal of Radiation Biology (1996;69-4:513-521) and Bioelectromagnetics
(1995; 16:207-210)
A year later in 1998, Jerry Phillips et al reported DNA single-strand
DNA breaks exposed to cellular telephone frequencies 813.5 MHz and 836.5
MHz at low SAR (average 2.4 and 24 µW/g-1). Phillips used the same
comet assay techniques used by Lai and Singh. This assay is widely used
by researchers to detect DNA damage produced by ionizing radiation.
Phillips postulated that DNA-repair rates may be affected by exposure to
RFR (Phillips et al, 1998). Of related interest, Phillips reported that
60 Hz ELF exposure caused a significant increase in DNA single-strand
breaks at 1 G in Molt-4 lymphoblastoid cells (Department of Energy
Contractors Conference, Tucson, Arizona, Abstract A-8, November 1998).
He postulates that ELF magnetic field exposure can affect both DNA
damage and repair processes, and lead to cell death (apoptosis).
Conventional wisdom has traditionally held that microwaves are not
genotoxic (directly damaging to the genome or DNA) unless high
temperatures are created (thermal effect of microwaves on genome).
Blank and Goodman (1997) postulate that the mechanism of EM signal
transduction in the cell membrane may be explained by direct interaction
of electric and magnetic fields with mobile charges within enzymes.
Recent studies on DNA show that large electron flows are possible within
the stacked base pairs of the double helix of DNA molecules. Therefore
gene activation by magnetic fields could be due to a direct interaction
with moving electrons within DNA. Electric fields as well as magnetic
fields stimulate gene transcription and both fields could interact with
DNA directly. Prior work on heat shock proteins by Goodman and Blank is
referenced in this paper showing that cellular reponse to EM fields is
activation of the same stress response system seen in heating, but at
very much lower energy than the response to heat shock (see Gene
Transcription and Induction).
Chromosome Aberrations and Micronuclei
Maes et al (1993) exposed human peripheral blood lymphocytes to
microwaves at 2450 MHz. A marked increase in the frequency of chromosome
aberrations and micronuclei (the formation of abnormal chromosome
fragments) was reported at nonthermal levels. Chromosome aberrations
increased with increasing time exposure (a dose-response). One type of
damage seen (the creation of dicentric chromosomes) is considered to be
the "hallmark" of ionizing radiation exposure. These results
are consistent with results of microwave radiation damage at other
frequencies and power densities reported by other researchers (Leonard
et al, 1983; Garaj-Vrhovac et al, 1990, 1991; d'Ambrosio et al, 1992).
Maes et al (1995) reported that whole blood exposed to the radiating
antenna of a GSM base station showed increased chromosome aberrations
when placed within a distance of 5 cm or less with two hour exposures.
Combined effects of 954 MHz radiofrequency radiation and the chemical
mutagen mitomycin C were studied by the same authors using human
lymphocytes. Blood samples were exposed to AM radiation from a GSM base
station at an estimated SAR of 1.5 W/Kg. Microwave exposure enhanced the
harmful effect of the chemical mutagen and showed a clear increase in a
form of chromosome aberration (sister chromatid exchange). Single strand
DNA breaks were also reported.
Effects on ornithine decarboxylase (ODC)
Litovitz et al (1993, 1997a, 1997b) and Penafiel et al (1997) tested
cells for production of ornithine decarboxylase (ODC) which is an enzyme
found in rapidly growing tissues, particularly tumors. They report that
amplitude-modulated microwaves (but not FM or continuous wave)
significantly affect ODC activity in L929 cells at an SAR of about 2.5
W/Kg at 835 MHz cellular telephone frequency. The effect was reported
with several types of amplitude modulation, including a TDMA cellular
telephone. The effect was notable at particular modulation frequencies
from 16 Hz to 65 Hz, but no effect was reported at 6 Hz or 600 Hz.
Importantly, Litovitz reported that no EMF-enhancement of ODC was
observed if the field was not constant in time over intervals of longer
than 1-10 seconds. If frequency was varied at intervals of 1 second or
less, no enhancement of ODC was reported.
Gene Transcription and Induction
Goswami et al (1999) report that proto-oncogene mRNA levels in
fibroblast cells exposed to cellular telephone frequency radiation show
increased expression of the Fos mRNA levels. Exposure to 835.62 MHz
(frequency modulated continuous wave) showed a 2-fold increase in Fos
mRNA levels that was statistically significant. The 847.74 MHz (code
division multiple access or CDMA) cellular telephone frequency exposure
resulted in a 40% and 90% increase in Fos mRNA that was also
statistically significant. These results indicate that specific genes
(in this case proto-oncogenes) may be affected by exposure to RFR
signals from cellular telephones.
Stress Response
Daniells et al (1998) found that nematodes respond to microwave
radiation with a stress response that can be assayed in the same fashion
as for stress related to heat and toxic chemicals. The nematode model
for measuring stress response induced by microwave radiation shows that
lower power levels induced larger stress responses (the opposite of a
simple heating effect). Microwave radiation caused measurable stress and
protein damage within cells (induction of hsp or heat shock protein)
comparable to damage from metal ions which are recognized to be toxic.
The authors conclude that clear biological effects of microwave
radiation have been demonstrated in terms of activation of cellular
stress responses (hsp gene induction).
Cellular Effects of Microwave Radiation
Calcium ion balance in living tissue is exquisitely important in the
proper function of cell communication, cell growth and other fundamental
life processes. Interactions of calcium at the cell membrane have been
identified as the first link in bioeffects from RFR. The seminal work of
W. Ross Adey and his research team, formerly at the Veterans Hospital at
Loma Linda, California has detailed much of the cascade of events by
which cellular processes are affected by RFR. Only selected work is
presented here, but the reader is referred to the extensive scientific
works and testimony on this topic (summarized in Adey, 1997).
Adey (1993) provides a comprehensive summary of microwave bioeffects
at the cellular level supporting the concept of athermal responses not
mediated by tissue heating. Amplitude-modulated or pulse-modulated
microwave exposure is a particular focus. Adey discusses the impact of
free-radicals in the brain and vascular systems and in the regulation of
oxidative stress diseases including Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease,
coronary heart disease, aging and cancer. Microwave exposure at athermal
levels may act as a tumor promoter, leading to tumor formation in the
absence of other chemical promoters. He cautions that observed
bioeffects of low intensity microwave exposure require further
investigation, particularly for nonlinear, nonequilibrium cooperative
processes.
Dutta et al (1989) reported that RFR caused changes in calcium ion
efflux from both bird and cat brain tissues, and from human
neuroblastoma cells. Significant calcium efflux was found at SAR values
of 0.05 and 0.005 W/Kg (a very low energy absorption rate) with RFR at
147 MHz when amplitude-modulated at 16 Hz. Further, enhanced calcium
efflux at 0.05 W/Kg peaked at 13-16 Hz and at the 57.5-60 Hz modulation
ranges. According to the authors "These results confirm that
amplitude-modulated RFR can induce responses in cells of nervous tissue
origin from widely different animal species, including humans. The
results are also consistent with the reports of similar findings in
avian and feline brain tissues and indicate the general nature of the
phenomenon."
Immune System Cellular Effects
Lyle et al (1983) reported that exposure to sinusoidally
amplitude-modulated RFR at nonthermal levels can reduce immune function
in cells. A 450 MHz radiofrequency field was modulated with a 60 Hz ELF
field. Tests showd that the unmodulated carrier wave of 450 MHz by
itself had no effect, and modulation frequencies of 40, 16 and 3 Hz had
progressively smaller effects than 60 Hz. Peak suppression of the
lymphocyte effectiveness (immune function effectiveness) was seen at 60
Hz modulation.
Veyret et al (1991) found that exposure to very low power, pulsed
microwaves significantly affects the immune system (either sharp
increases or decreases in immune response) at specific
amplitude-modulated frequencies. Pulsed microwaves at 9.4 GHz were
amplitude-modulated at modulation frequencies between 14 and 41 MHz and
at power density of 30 µ/cm2, whole-body average SAR of about 0.015
W/Kg. Importantly, in the absence of amplitude-modulation, exposure to
the microwave frequency alone did not affect immune function. It was
only with the addition of amplitude-modulation that effects were seen.
Elekes (1996) found that the effect of amplitude-modulated RFR and
continuous- wave RFR induced moderate elevation of antibody production
in male mice (but not female mice). The carrier frequency was 2.45 GHz
(which is used in industry) with a modulation frequency of 50 Hz (which
is similar to the frequency of some mobile phone systems like TDMA and
other ELF-modulated mobile phone systems). Power density was 0.1 mW/cm2,
which corresponds to that allowed in the workplace for long-term
exposure under Hungarian standards. Exposure was short-term, and the
authors remark that the moderate increase in immune function may be
related to the brevity of exposure.
Blood-brain Barrier
The blood-brain barrier has a vital role in the body to exclude
toxins from the blood stream from reaching sensitive brain tissues. This
barrier is known to protect the brain from toxic or other harmful
compounds. It is selectively permeable, allowing some molecules like
glucose to pass, but restricting others. It has a dual role in
preventing the brain from damage, while stabilizing and optimizing the
fluids surrounding the brain.
Salford et al (1994) showed leakage through the blood-brain barrier
(or increased permeability) is caused by 915 MHz RFR. Both continuous
wave (CW) and pulsed microwave RFR have the ability to open up the
blood-brain barrier to leakage. Salford reported that the number of rats
exposed to SARs between 0.016 and 5 W/Kg which showed leakage of the
blood-brain barrier was 56 of 184 animals, compared to only 5 of 62
control animals. Whether this constitutes a health hazard demands
further investigation, but the concept that the blood-brain barrier is
clearly breached by both types of low power microwave radiation is
concerning. At least ten other scientific papers cited in his reference
list also show blood-brain barrier effects of RFR.
Cancer
From the genetic building blocks of life to the whole organism, ELF/RFR
has been demonstrated to produce bioeffects, which may be deleterious to
health. The basic functions of the body, which control proper cell
growth, cell proliferation, immune surveillance and toxin protection is
shown to be adversely affected, in many cases at environmental levels of
exposure. Cancer as a disease endpoint of RFR exposure has been studied
for two decades, and both animal and human studies point to a link
between exposure under some conditions and cancer. The major concern
with mobile telephone technology is its rapid growth around the world,
putting millions of users at potential risk, and the emerging evidence
for brain tumors.
Guy et al (1984) conducted studies for the US Air Force on rats in
the first major research specifically designed to approximate effects of
microwaves on human beings. Guy remarked there were more than 6000
articles on the biological effects of RFR by 1984, but the question of
low-level exposure as a human health hazard was unanswered.
In historical perspective, this study provided the first and, to that
time, the best study of potential effects from long-term exposure to RFR.
John Mitchell (1992), Brooks Air Force Base Armstrong Laboratory, the
sponsor of the Guy et al rat study concluded "at our request, Bill
Guy took up this challenge and conducted a landmark long-term study that
was longer and better conceived and conducted than anything done
previously with RFR. To expose animals continuously for more than two
years, as envisioned by the experimental protocol, a whole new concept
of exposure facilities had to be created."
Objectives of the study were "in a population of experimental
animals throughout their natural lifetimes, to simulate the chronic
exposure of humans to 450 MHz RFR at an incident power density of 1 mW/cm2.
Our primary interest was to investigate possible cumulative effects on
general health and longevity." (USAFSAM-TR-85-64).
The first publication of the Guy rat study was in the 1985 US Air
Force USAFSAM-TR-85-64 report "Effects of long-term low-level
radiofrequency radiation exposure on rats". It reported a four-fold
statistically significant increase in primary malignancies.
Chou and Guy (1992) later reported the results of their 1984 cancer
studies on rats which found a four-fold statistically significant
increase in primary malignant tumors in the 1992 Biolelectromagnetics
Journal honoring Dr. Guy on his retirement. The article restated the
1984-85 finding of increased cancer in rats with microwave exposure over
the lifetime of the animals. Exposure conditions involved SARs of 0.15
to 0.4 W/Kg of 2450 MHz pulsed microwave (square wave modulated at 8
Hz). Note that the current standard for public exposure is 0.4 W/Kg SAR.
Although the Guy study urged immediate follow-up and verification
studies, no such studies were conducted for more than a decade.
Repacholi et al (1997) conducted mice studies using 900 MHz mobile
phone frequency radiation and found a statistically significant 2.4-fold
increase in lymphomas. Lymphoma risk was found to be significantly
higher in the exposed mice. He concluded that long-term intermittent
exposure to RFR can enhance the probability that mice will develop
lymphomas. It is noteworthy that the animals were exposed to normal cell
phone frequency RFR for only two one-half hour periods per day for eight
months. Current human use of mobile phones can exceed 2000 minutes per
day for business travelers.
A second study of mice and cancer conducted by Repacholi (Harris et
al, 1998) with 50 Hz magnetic fields alone did not result in increased
cancer rates. The authors conclude that "in contrast, when Pim1
mice were exposed to pulse-modulated radiofrequency fields (900 MHz), a
highly significant increase in lymphoma incidence from 22% to 43%
occurred. Perhaps the increased incidence of cancer that in some
epidemiological studies has been associated with residential proximity
to high-current power-distribution wiring results from exposure to
high-frequency transients rather than the primary 50/60 Hz magnetic
fields. In our study, the magnetic fields to which the mice were exposed
were switched on and off in a manner that minimized the production of
transients."
Hardell (1999) has reported increased risk of brain tumors in humans
using cellular telephones. The main type of brain tumors found to occur
were malignant glioblastomas and astrocytomas and non-malignant
meningiomas and acoustical neuromas. An increased risk (although
statistically insignificant) was found for malignant brain tumors on the
same side of the head on which the cell phone was used for analog cell
phones. The increased risk was 2.45-fold for right side use, and
2.40-fold for left side. GSM users did not have adequate use over time
for there to be adequate evaluation of risk. No association between RFR
and acoustical neuromas was reported.
Adey (1996) found a slight protective effect of microwave mobile
phone exposure with respect to brain tumors in rats, where a reduced
number of the expected brain tumors resulted. The exposure was for NADC
(North American digital cellular) producing a TDMA signal at 836.55 MHz.
No brain tumor enhancing effect was found. Apparent
"protective" effects (fewer tumors) were discussed but did not
reach statistical significance. The authors conclude that TDMA field had
no enhancing effect on incidence, type or location of nervous system
tumors, although some protective effect may be possible and further
research is warranted.
Brain Symptoms Reported Using Mobile Phones
Mild et al (1998) reported on a joint Swedish-Norwegian
epidemiological study of cases using both GSM digital and analogue
mobile phones. A statistically significant association between calling
time/number of calls per day and the prevalence of warmth behind/around
the ear, headaches and fatigue was reported. However, GSM digital phones
were less associated with these symptoms than analogue phones. The
Swedish data show that GSM users reported less headache and fatigue than
for analogue users. Warmth sensations were also reported lower among GSM
users.
Mobile phone usage was tested in humans (Hocking, 1998) to
investigate whether normal use could result in immediate symptoms of the
head and neck. He reported that of 40 respondents, headaches with pain
radiating to the jaw, neck, shoulders or arm in a few respondents. A
majority reported that sensations of head pain started in less than five
minutes after commencing phone calls, and another 12 felt the sensation
build up as the day progressed. All could distinguish the headaches as
different in quality from typical headaches. Eleven cases reported
transient effects on vision such as blurring. Fifteen cases reported
feelings of nausea or dizziness or a "fuzziness" in the head,
which made thinking difficult. One case had long-standing tinnitus, but
after a prolonged mobile phone call developed deafness and vertigo
lasting five hours. Three cases transferred the mobile phone to a belt.
One reported pain in the area at nighttime and another felt a cold area
over the place it was worn on the hip. A third person reported pain
similar to injured muscles. Twenty eight cases reported symptoms using
GSM digital mobile phones and ten with analogue mobile phones. Of the
former, thirteen said they had used analogue phones without developing
symptoms felt with GSM digital phones. Twenty two said they used mobile
phones more than five times per day, and thirty four had changed their
use of mobile phones as a result of symptoms.
Neurological Effects (Nervous System)
Neurologic effects of RFR have been examined at several levels in
living organisms. At the ion and molecular levels there are many effects
reported and replicated at nonthermal levels. These effects include
calcium changes (essential cell communication and growth regulation),
neurotransmitters (chemicals that conduct nerve signals and control such
things as appetite, mood, behavior, drug responses, sleep, learning and
memory), behavioral (memory and learning impairment in rats and humans),
and on sleep disorders.
Lai (1994a) prepared a review of the literature on neurological
effects of RFR on the central nervous system. It provides a concise
overview of how the central nervous system (CNS) should normally work,
and how RFR has been reported to affect functions of the CNS. The
nervous system coordinates and controls an organism's response to the
environment through autonomic and voluntary muscular movements and
neurohumoral functions. Behavioral changes could be the most sensitive
effects of RFR exposure.
The movement of calcium ions in brain tissue is changed by RFR.
Calcium ions control many brain and body functions including the release
and receptor function of neurotransmitters, and any change in their
functioning could significantly affect health.
Psychoactive Drugs
The action of psychoactive drugs depends on proper functioning of
neurotransmitters. RFR changes some neurotransmitter functions, which
lead to changes in the actions of psychoactive drugs. Lai reports that
RFR alters pentobarbital-induced narcosis and hypothermia at 0.6 W/Kg in
rats. The nervous system becomes more sensitive to convulsions induced
by drugs like pentylenetetrazol. RFR exposure makes the nervous system
less susceptible to curare-like drugs that are used in anesthesia to
paralyze patients during surgery. Antianxiety drugs like valium and
librium may be potentiated in the body with RFR exposure. Lai has
postulated that the endogenous opioids are activated by low-level RFR
exposure (Lai, 1992, 1994b). This hypothesis can explain increased
alcohol consumption seen in rats during RFR exposure, and the lessening
of withdrawal symptoms in morphine-dependent rats. RFR-psychoactive drug
interactions can be selectively blocked by pretreating animals with
narcotic antagonists (i.e., compounds that block the actions of
endogenous opioids) before exposure to RFR, suggesting that the
endogenous opioid system is activated by RFR (Lai et al, 1986).
Serotonin
Serotonin activity is reported to be affected by RFR. Drugs which
cause a depletion of serotonin (like fenfluramine) by themselves cause a
severe and long-lasting depletion of serotonin together with RFR
exposure (Panksepp, 1973 in Lai, 1994). Lai (1984) reported that
hyperthermic effects of RFR could be blocked by pre-treatment by
serotonin antagonists suggesting that the hyperthermia was caused by
activation of serotonergic activity by RFR. Drugs which decrease
serotonin activity in the brain are shown to suppress aggressive
behavior (Panksepp et al, 1973 in Lai, 1994). Serotonin-related
functions include sleep, learning, regulation of hormone secretion,
autonomic functions, responses to stress and motor functions (Lai et al,
1984). In humans, a cluster of symptoms called serotonin-irritation
syndromes include anxiety, flushing, headache and migraine headache and
hyperperistalsis which are related to hyperserotonergic states (Lai et
al, 1984). Further work to define the relationship between RFR and
serotonin has not taken place.
Eye Damage
Drugs can also enhance the adverse effect of RFR on the eyes. Kues et
al (1992) reported that a drug treatment used for glaucoma could worsen
the effect of RFR on corneal eye damage.
Behavioral Changes
Behavioral changes due to RFR are reported in many scientific studies
(D'Andrea, 1999). The performance disruption paradigm that is based
acceptable levels of RFR on thermal limits does not take into account
reports of microwave effects on cognitive performance. D'Andrea (1999)
discusses that "it is likely that effects on cognitive performance
may occur at lower SARs than those required for elicitation of
behavioral thermoregulation at levels that totally disrupt ongoing
behaviors". Further, "the current literature on heat stress
does not provide data or models that predict the behavioral effects of
microwave absorption at low SAR levels". Finally, he notes that
"the whole-body and partial-body absorption of microwaves
(hotspots) is unique at each frequency in the range of 10 MHz to 100
GHz". Hotspots vary dramatically with RFR frequency, shape and size
of the mammal and the animal's orientation in the field (D'Andrea,
1999). Performance of cognitively mediated tasks may be disrupted at
levels of exposure lower than that required to behavioral changes due to
thermal effects of RFR exposure. "Unlike the disruption of
performance of a simple task, a disruption of cognitive functions could
lead to profound errors in judgment due to alteration of perception,
disruption of memory processes, attention, and/or learning ability,
resulting in modified but not totally disrupted behavior." (D'Andrea,
1999).
Nervous and behavioral effects of RFR on humans have been reported
for five decades. Silverman (1973) is an early reviewer of health
effects linked to microwave exposure. She recounts that "the little
experimental work that has been done on man has pointed towards possible
alterations of the sensitivity of various sense organs, particularly
auditory and olfactory threshold changes. There have been numerous case
reports, rumors and speculations about the role of microwave radiation
in a variety of disorders of the brain and nervous system, such as a
causitive role in severe neurotic syndrome, astrocytoma of the brain,
and a protective role in multiple sclerosis. In the main, however, the
nervous and behavioral effects attributed to microwave irradiation at
issue are those found in clinical studies of groups occupationally
exposed to various intensities and frequencies of microwaves for
variable but generally long periods of time." She discusses
nonthermal effects of low-dose, long-term exposure in nine clinical
studies of workers exposed to microwave-generating equipment in
Czechslovakia, Poland, the USSR and USA. All studies show nervous system
effects. Silverman notes that such published studies "virtually
ceased in the USA after the 1950's while considerable investigation
continued to be reported from the USSR and other eastern European
countries".
Raslear et al (1993) reported that significant effects on cognitive
function in rats were clearly observed with RFR exposure, particularly
in the decision-making process.
Learning and Memory
Lai et al (1994) found that rats exposed for 45 minutes to 2450 MHz
RFR at whole-body SAR of 0.6 W/Kg showed a learning deficit in the
radial-arm maze which is a behavioral task involving short-term spatial
memory function. In searching for the mechanisms for this deficit in
learning and memory, Lai found that a drug that enhances cholinergic
activity in the brain could block this microwave-induced learning
deficit in the maze. Cholinergic systems in the brain are well known to
be involved in spatial learning in the radial-arm maze (Lai et al,
1994).
Cognitive Functions
Preece (1999) reported that RFR at cell phone frequencies speeded the
rate at which humans responded to tasks (reaction time) but did not
affect memory. Students were exposed to both analog and GSM digital
phone signals for one half an hour, and then were tested for memory and
speed and accuracy on cognitive tests. The higher the power from the
cell phone signal, the faster the response time was reported, indicating
the cell phone signal is not biologically neutral but can affect the
brain's activity.
Sleep
Sleep disruption related to RFR has been reported in several
scientific studies. Mann et al (1996) reported that RFR similar to
digital mobile telephones reduced REM sleep in humans and altered the
EEG (brain wave) signal in humans during REM sleep. REM sleep is
essential for information processing in the brain, particularly with
respect to learning and memory functions. It is thought to be needed for
selecting, sorting and consolidating new experiences and information
received during the waking state, and linking them together with old
experiences.
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